Performance-Enhancing Drug Use in Recreational Athletes

Such effects could be explained by the use of allied substances or stimulants, such as cocaine, that are harmful to the CVS. In addition, AAS users often combine different forms of steroids, termed “stacking”, as a means of maximising muscle growth, which could account for the adverse cardiac effects experienced in some and not others 6. More importantly, the varying structure, metabolites and administration patterns of AASs makes it challenging to predict accurate and reproducible physiological consequences on the cardiovascular system. Additionally, the majority of studies are focussed on post-adolescent males, becoming problematic when translating the negative cardiac effects to all users.

Anabolic steroid misuse

Furthermore, their use raises serious ethical questions about fairness and integrity in professional sports. Even though certain physiological mechanisms have been argued to be the benefits or drawbacks of both caffeine and anabolic androgenic steroids, these are still viewed as hypotheses and associations and, thus remain incomplete as explanations without larger randomised controlled trials. To what extent caffeine may be regarded as a drug to the athlete is difficult. There are several preparations, majority of which are in combinations, and there is lack of consistency on both performance and cardiac outcomes. Furthermore, it should be noted that the documented adverse effects of AASs have failed to be replicated in a few studies. For instance, not all AAS users experience left ventricular hypertrophy and/or endothelial dysfunction.

As such this topic requires further studies in different clinical and sport settings. From a methodological point of view, in clinical studies on athletes, it is usually not straightforward to fully confirm or exclude the use of doping agents, which is a serious confounder. Future research may include the use of new promising biomarkers such as microRNAs 66,67. Those small particles regulate the post-transcription gene expression by RNA-RNA interactions. Circulating microRNAs, due to their high environmental stability and presence in various body fluids, have been already shown to have potential in detection of illicit substances 43. Several microRNAs have been also linked to heart dysfunction in the form of myocardial ischemia, hypertrophy, fibrosis and arrhythmia 66.

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AASs are involved in promoting the growth of cardiac tissue, resulting in significant adverse adaptations such as an increase in wall thickness, and left ventricular cavity size; there has been observable differences in left ventricular posterior wall and septal wall thickness 49. The induction of myocyte hypertrophy results in counter opposing measures such as the release of apoptogenic factors leading to further deleterious effects on the myocardium (Figure 3). For instance, it has been noted that AAS abusers demonstrate a reduction in peak strain and strain rates of the left posterior and septal walls 50. Animal models have been particularly useful in demonstrating such changes. For instance, rats after 8–12 weeks of AAS use demonstrated cardiomegaly 45.

Study Identification and Selection

• Dominant AAS-treated rats spent more time on highly aggressive behaviors than the dominant placebo-treated rats.
• This gives rise to the assumption that the dark triad personality traits may be ascribed to cognitive enhancers use.
• With the advances made in the field of genetic engineering during the 1980s, HGH became increasingly widely available and hit the black market, where athletes could get access to it.
• The negative effects these drugs can have on one’s body make USADA’s mission paramount as to why no athlete should ever have to consider PED use to succeed in sport.
• As mentioned previously, this list is used by the IOC and other international cycling agencies such as the Union Cycliste Internationale to help control doping.93 In addition, rHuEPO use is prohibited by all major American sports organizations.

In this concern, APEDs and specifically cognitive enhancers use, which is also to some extent illegal and therefore unethical, can be seen as a form of cheating behavior in the furtherance of personal objectives, with total disregard for the possible health risks that might ensue. This gives rise to the assumption that the dark triad personality traits may be ascribed to cognitive enhancers use. High amounts of injectable HGH, particularly when the drugs are obtained from illegal online sources, can result in an overdose. Impairment of the pituitary gland, which may be irreversible, can cause the pituitary to be unable to produce the body’s natural supply of human growth hormone. Anabolic steroids – these illegal drugs have been widely used to cheat in sport over the past 50 years because they help the athlete to make rapid increases in strength and recovery from high intensity movements such as sprints. However, steroids are thought to cause severe mood swings when used in large quantities and may cause heart disease in some people.

1.3. Caffeine Genetics

• Their doses taken for non-medical purposes, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), are 10 – 100 times higher than doses recommended for medical reasons.
• Androstenedione was considered a dietary supplement and can be purchased from any sports pharmacy, but in 2004 these products were classified as controlled substances making it only legal for purchase with a prescription.
• Doping with anabolic steroids is banned by most sports leagues and groups.
• Today, the pursuit of a competitive edge drives many athletes to use PEDs, despite their ban by most sports federations and the legal implications surrounding their use outside of medical prescriptions.
• From that moment on, really, being in that Los Angeles courtroom, I came out of there and I had a new perspective on what I was going to do with my life.

Both the International Cycling Union and other federations that have implemented the Passport to target athletes for the presence of ESAs have reported a reduction of blood doping among their athletes (397). AASs may cause adverse musculoskeletal effects (328, 329), especially tendon rupture (329–337), attributable both to the disproportionate strength of hypertrophied muscles (338) and to possible deleterious effects of AAS on the architecture of the tendons themselves (339–341). AASs may affect the immune system (342), the lungs (343), and possibly other organ systems (18) and might cause acne (344), although knowledge in these areas remains limited. Notably, there is little evidence of an association between AAS use and cancer, with the exception of rare reports of hepatic cancers (322), intratesticular leiomyosarcoma (345), and renal cell carcinoma (346, 347).

The mineral is said to increase lean muscle mass, burn fat, and enhance a person’s energy levels. Blood doping – this involves removing blood and then re-transfusing it a few weeks later after the lost red blood cells have been replaced. This method was infamously used by Lance Armstrong during the Tour de France. Cardiovascular fitness is enhanced in the short term but there is a serious risk of infections and illness as a result. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) images of a 38-year old bodybuilder with anabolic androgenic steroid use—(A). Cine steady-state free precession (SSFP) in mid-ventricular short-axis view at end-diastole showing hypertrophied interventricular septum (15 mm) and enlarged left ventricle (62 mm) with decreased systolic function (ejection fracTable 44. not shown), (B).

Stimulants

There’s also the practice of blood doping, which involves blood transfusions to boost the body’s capabilities of carrying oxygen. Stepping up use and continuing to abuse PEDs can lead to dependence and addiction. For example, anabolic and other steroids that affect a person’s hormones can cause long-term health problems — or even death. The use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) is currently one of the biggest issues in modern sport. Athletes such as Lance Armstrong and Justin Gatlin have both damaged the reputation and credibility of their respective sports. Athletes may choose to use illegal PEDs for different reasons and with varying risks.

Because they flush excess fluid from the body, however, they can also cause severe dehydration. Dehydration can cause a number of other potentially dangerous side effects, including electrolyte imbalances such as potassium deficiency, muscle cramps, dizziness, extremely low blood pressure, exhaustion and heart problems. Performance-enhancing steroids usually work by mimicking natural testosterone.

Simply effects of performance-enhancing drugs put, PEDs have the ability or potential to drastically alter the human body and biological functions, including the ability to considerably improve athletic performance in certain instances. These drugs, however, can be extremely dangerous and, in certain situations, deadly. The negative effects these drugs can have on one’s body make USADA’s mission paramount as to why no athlete should ever have to consider PED use to succeed in sport.